Essay #1: Of Studies by Francis Bacon (1625)
Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief
use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in
discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of
business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars,
one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of
affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time
in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation;
to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. They
perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities
are like natural plants, that need pruning, by study; and studies
themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be
bounded in by experience. Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire
them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that
is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not
to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to
find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be
tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested;
that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read,
but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence
and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy [by another person], and extracts [summaries] made
of them by others; but that would be only in the less important
arguments, and the meaner sort of books, else distilled books are like
common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man;
conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a
man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little,
he had need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had need have
much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise;
poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral
grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.
Abeunt studia in mores
[Studies pass into and influence manners]. Nay, there is no stand or
impediment in the wit but may be wrought out by fit studies; like as
diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for
the stone and reins [bladderstone and kidney disorders]; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking
for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. So if a man’s wit be
wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his
wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If his wit be
not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the Schoolmen;
for they are
cymini sectores [splitters of hairs]. If he be not
apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and
illustrate another, let him study the lawyers’ cases. So every defect of
the mind may have a special receipt.
Journal: Francis Bacon on Studies (20)
- What kind of person does reading help produce?
- Conversation (conference)?
- Writing?
- What balances reading out? Provide one supporting quotation.
- What are proper motivations for reading?
- What are improper motivations for reading?
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Essay #2 On Studies by Samuel Johnson (1753)
It is observed by Bacon, that "reading makes a full man, conversation a ready man, and writing an exact man."
As Bacon attained to degrees of knowledge scarcely ever attained by
any other man, the directions which he gives for study have certainly a
just claim to our regard; for who can teach an art with so great
authority, as he that has practiced it with undisputed success?
Under the protection of so great a name, I shall, therefore, venture
to inculcate to my ingenious contemporaries, the necessity of reading,
the fitness of consulting other understandings than their own, and of
considering the sentiments and opinions of those who, however neglected
in the present age, had in their own times, and many of them a long time
afterwards, such reputation for knowledge and acuteness as will
scarcely ever be attained by those that
despise them.
An opinion has of late been, I know not how, propagated among us,
that libraries are filled only with useless lumber; that men of parts
stand in need of no assistance; and that to spend life in poring upon
books is only to imbibe prejudices, to obstruct and embarrass the powers
of nature, to cultivate memory at the expense of judgment,
and to bury reason under a chaos of indigested learning.
Such is the talk of many who think themselves wise, and of some who
are thought wise by others; of whom part probably believe their own
tenets, and part may be justly suspected of endeavouring to shelter
their ignorance in multitudes, and of wishing to destroy that reputation
which they have no hopes to share. It will, I believe, be found
invariably true, that learning was never decried by any
learned man; and what credit can be given to those, who venture to
condemn that which they do not know?
If reason has the power ascribed to it by its advocates, if so much
is to be discovered by attention and meditation, it is hard to believe,
that so many millions, equally participating of the bounties of nature
with ourselves, have been for ages upon ages meditating in vain: if the
wits of the present time expect the regard of posterity, which will then
inherit the reason which is now thought superior to
instruction, surely they may allow themselves to be instructed by the
reason of former generations.
When, therefore, an author declares that
he has been able to learn nothing from the writings of his predecessors,
and such a declaration has been lately made, nothing but a degree of
arrogance unpardonable in the greatest human
understanding, can hinder him from perceiving that he is raising
prejudices against his performance; for with what hopes of success can
he attempt that in which greater abilities have hitherto miscarried? Or
with what peculiar force does he suppose himself invigorated, that
difficulties hitherto invincible should give way before him.
Of those whom Providence has qualified to make any additions to human
knowledge, the number is extremely small; and what can be added by each
single mind even of this superior class, is very little: the greatest
part of mankind must owe all their knowledge, and all must owe far the
larger part of it, to the information of others. To
understand the works of celebrated authors, to comprehend their systems,
and retain their reasonings is a task more than equal to common
intellects; and he is by no means to be accounted useless or idle who
has stored his mind with acquired knowledge, and can detail it
occasionally to others who have less leisure or weaker abilities.
Persius has justly observed that knowledge is nothing to him who is
not known by others to possess it: to the scholar himself it is nothing
with respect either to honour or advantage, for the world cannot reward
those qualities which are concealed from it; with respect to others it
is nothing, because it affords no help to ignorance or error.
It is with justice, therefore, that in an accomplished character,
Horace unites just sentiments with the power of expressing them; and he
that has once accumulated learning is next to consider how he shall most
widely diffuse and most agreeably impart it.
A ready man is made by conversation. He that buries himself among his manuscripts
besprent, as Pope expresses it,
with learned dust, and wears out his days and nights in perpetual research and solitary meditation, is too apt to lose in his elocution
what he adds to his wisdom, and when he comes into the world, to appear
overloaded with his own notions, like a man armed with weapons
which he cannot wield. He has no facility of inculcating his
speculations, of adapting himself to the various degrees of intellect
which the accidents of conversation will present; but will talk to most
unintelligibly, and to all unpleasantly.
I was once present at the lectures of a profound philosopher, a man
really skilled in the science which he professed, who having occasion to
explain the terms
opacum and
pellucidum, told us, after some hesitation, that
opacum was, as one might say
opaque, and that
pellucidum signified
pellucid. Such was the dexterity with which this learned reader facilitated to his auditors the intricacies of science; and so
true is it that a man may know what he cannot teach.
Boerhaave complains that the writers who have treated of chemistry
before him are useless to the greater part of students; because they
presuppose their readers to have such degrees of skill as are not often
to be found. Into the same error are all men apt to fall who have
familiarized any subject to themselves in solitude: they discourse as if
they thought every other man had been employed in the same inquiries;
and expect that short hints and obscure allusions will produce in others
the same train of ideas which they
excite in themselves.
Nor is this the only inconvenience which the man of study suffers
from a recluse life. When he meets with an opinion that pleases him, he
catches it up with eagerness; looks only after such arguments as tend to
his confirmation; or spares himself the trouble of discussion, and
adopts it with very little proof; indulges it long without suspicion,
and in time unites it to the general body of his knowledge, and
treasures it up among incontestible truths: but when
he comes into the world among men who, arguing upon dissimilar
principles, have been led to different conclusions, and being placed in
various situations view the same object on many sides, he finds his
darling position attacked, and himself in no condition to defend it:
having thought always in one train, he is in the state of a man who
having fenced with the same master, is perplexed and amazed by a new
posture of his antagonist; he is entangled in unexpected
difficulties, he is harassed by sudden objections, he is
unprovided with solutions or replies; his surprise impedes his natural
powers of reasoning, his thoughts are scattered and confounded, and he
gratifies the pride of airy petulance with an easy victory.
It is difficult to imagine with what obstinacy truths which one mind
perceives almost by intuition will be rejected by
another; and how many artifices must be practised to procure admission
for the most evident propositions into understandings frighted by their
novelty, or hardened against them by accidental prejudice; it can
scarcely be conceived how frequently in these extemporaneous
controversies the dull will be subtle, and the acute absurd; how often
stupidity will elude the force of argument, by involving itself in its
own gloom; and mistaken ingenuity will weave
artful fallacies, which reason can scarcely find means to
disentangle.
In these encounters the learning of the recluse usually fails him:
nothing but long habit and frequent experiments can confer the power of
changing a position into various forms, presenting it in different
points of view, connecting it with known and granted truths, fortifying
it with intelligible arguments, and illustrating it by apt similitudes;
and he, therefore, that has collected his knowledge in solitude, must
learn its application by mixing with mankind.
But while the various opportunities of conversation invite us to try
every mode of argument, and every art of recommending our sentiments, we
are frequently betrayed to the use of such as are not in themselves
strictly defensible: a man heated in talk, and eager of victory, takes
advantage of the mistakes or ignorance of his adversary, lays hold of
concessions to which he knows he has no right, and urges proofs likely
to prevail on his opponent, though he knows himself that they have no
force: thus the severity of reason
is relaxed, many topics are accumulated, but without just
arrangement or distinction; we learn to satisfy ourselves with such
ratiocination as silences others; and seldom recall to a close
examination that discourse which has gratified our vanity with victory
and applause.
Some caution, therefore, must be used, lest copiousness and facility
be made less valuable by inaccuracy and confusion. To fix the thoughts
by writing, and subject them to frequent examinations and reviews, is
the best method of enabling the mind to detect its own sophisms, and
keep it on guard against the fallacies which it practises on others: in
conversation we naturally diffuse our thoughts, and in writing we
contract them; method is the excellence of writing, and unconstraint the
grace of conversation.
To read, write, and converse in due proportions is, therefore, the
business of a man of letters. For all these there is not often equal
opportunity; excellence, therefore, is not often attainable: and most
men fail in one or other of the ends proposed, and are full without
readiness, or ready without exactness. Some deficiency must be forgiven
all, because all are men; and more must be allowed to pass
uncensured in the greater part of the world, because none can confer
upon himself abilities, and few have the choice of situations proper for
the improvement of those which nature has bestowed: it is, however,
reasonable, to have perfection in our eye; that we may always advance
towards it, though we know it never can be reached.
Journal: Samuel Johnson on Studies (20)
- What happens to the isolated scholar?
- What is the essential difference between the speaking (or conversing) on a subject and writing on a subject? Provide one supporting quotation.
- Rhetorically, is Johnson's essay synonymous (same thesis), antithetical (opposing), or synthetic (taking and building more), compared to Bacon's? Explain.
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Essay #3: The Bugbear Style by Samuel Johnson
The great differences that disturb the peace of mankind are not about
ends, but means. We have all the same general desires, but how those
desires shall be accomplished, will for ever be disputed. The ultimate
purpose of government is temporal, and that of religion is eternal
happiness. Hitherto we agree; but here we must part, to try, according
to the endless varieties of passion and understanding combined with one
another, every possible form of government, and every imaginable tenet
of religion.
We are told by [the writer and civil servant Richard] Cumberland that
rectitude, applied to action or contemplation, is merely metaphorical; and that as a
right line describes the shortest passage from point to point, so a
right action effects a good design by the fewest means; and so likewise a
right opinion is that which connects distant truths by the shortest train of intermediate propositions.
To find the nearest way from truth to truth, or from purpose to
effect, not to use more instruments where fewer will be sufficient; not
to move by wheels and levers what will give way to the naked hand, is
the great proof of a healthful and vigorous mind, neither feeble with
helpless ignorance, nor overburdened with unwieldy knowledge.
But there are men who seem to think nothing so much the
characteristic of a genius, as to do common things in an uncommon
manner; like Hudibras, to
tell the clock by algebra; or like the lady in Dr. Young's satires,
to drink tea by stratagem;
to quit the beaten track only because it is known, and take a new path,
however crooked or rough, because the strait was found out before.
Every man speaks and writes with intent to be understood; and it can
seldom happen but he that understands himself, might convey his notions
to another, if, content to be understood, he did not seek to be admired;
but when once he begins to contrive how his sentiments may be received,
not with most ease to his reader, but with most advantage to himself,
he then transfers his consideration from words to sounds, from sentences
to periods, and as he grows more elegant becomes less intelligible.
It is difficult to enumerate every species of authors whose labours
counteract themselves; the man of exuberance and copiousness, who
diffuses every thought through so many diversities of expression, that
it is lost like water in a mist; the ponderous dictator of sentences,
whose notions are delivered in the lump, and are, like uncoined bullion,
of more weight than use; the liberal illustrator, who shews by examples
and comparisons what was clearly seen when it was first proposed; and
the stately son of demonstration, who proves with mathematical formality
what no man has yet pretended to doubt.
There is a mode of style for which I know not that the masters of
oratory have yet found a name; a style by which the most evident truths
are so obscured, that they can no longer be perceived, and the most
familiar propositions so disguised that they cannot be known. Every
other kind of eloquence is the dress of sense; but this is the mask by
which a true master of his art will so effectually conceal it, that a
man will as easily mistake his own positions, if he meets them thus
transformed, as he may pass in a masquerade his nearest acquaintance.
This style may be called the
terrifick, for its chief intention is, to terrify and amaze; it may be termed the
repulsive, for its natural effect is to drive away the reader; or it may be distinguished, in plain English, by the denomination of the
bugbear style, for it has more terror than danger, and will appear less formidable as it is more nearly approached.
A mother tells her infant, that
two and two make four; the
child remembers the proposition, and is able to count four to all the
purposes of life, till the course of his education brings him among
philosophers who fright him from his former knowledge, by telling him,
that four is a certain aggregate of units; that all numbers being only
the repetition of an unit, which, though not a number itself, is the
parent, root, or original of all number,
four is the denomination
assigned to a certain number of such repetitions. The only danger is,
lest, when he first hears these dreadful sounds, the pupil should run
away; if he has but the courage to stay till the conclusion, he will
find that, when speculation has done its worst, two and two still make
four.
An illustrious example of this species of eloquence may be found in
"Letters concerning Mind." The author begins by declaring, that "the
sorts of things are things that now are, have been, and shall be, and
the things that strictly
are." In this position, except the last
clause, in which he uses something of the scholastick language, there is
nothing but what every man has heard, and imagines himself to know. But
who would not believe that some wonderful novelty is presented to his
intellect, when he is afterwards told, in the true bugbear style, that
"the
ares, in the former sense, are things that lie between the
have-beens and
shall-bes. The
have-beens are things that are past; the
shall-bes are things that are to come; and the things that
are,
in the latter sense, are things that have not been, nor shall be, nor
stand in the midst of such as are before them, or shall be after them.
The things that
have been, and
shall be, have respect to present, past, and future. Those likewise that now
are have moreover place; that, for instance, which is here, that which is to the east, that which is to the west."
All this my dear reader, is very strange; but though it be strange,
it is not new; survey these wonderful sentences again and they will be
found to contain nothing more than very plain truths, which till this
Author arose, had always been delivered in plain language*.
*
These "Letters on Mind" were written by a Mr. Petvin, who after
some years again astounded the literary public by sending forth, in
diction equally terrific, another tract entitled a "Summary of the
Soul's Perceptive Faculties," 1768. He was at that time compared to Duns
Scotus, the subtle Doctor, who, in the weakness of old age, wept
because he could not understand the subtleties of his earlier writings.
Journal: Samuel Johnson: The Bugbear Style (20)
- What makes for a right action according to Richard Cumberland?
- What characteristics does the bugbear style have?
- What kind of speakers or writers would you say employ the bugbear style today?
